The Origins of the Early Modern Witch Hunts

When it comes to the origins of the Early Modern Witch Hunts in Europe, the general consensus among historians is that the Witch Hunts were an evolution of the trials of medieval heretics like the Cathars, the Waldensians and the Templars. In this article I will briefly outline the theories of the historians Richard Kieckhefer and Norman Cohn regarding the evolution of the Witch Hunts.

An outline of Richard Kieckhefer's theory can be found in his article 'Witch Trials in Medieval Europe'. [1] He describes four broad periods in the development of the Witch Hunts, these being 1300 to 1330, 1330 to 1375, 1375 to 1435 and 1435 to 1500.

During the period 1300 to 1330, the frequency of trials was low, roughly one a year for all of Europe. The most important feature of the trials in this period was their political character: they generally involved prominent political or ecclesiastical groups or figures. The political character of the trials was fostered by the unstable and fractured political climate of the early fourteenth century. The various political factions began to use charges of heresy and witchcraft against their enemies, and a number of prominent figures became obsessed with the notion that they were under magical attack, for example Pope John XXII, and the last members of the Capetian Dynasty. [2] These trials were mostly concerned with heresy and diabolism, but accusations of witchcraft were also made.

Between 1330 and 1375 the frequency of the trials was still low, but the emphasis had shifted from the elites to the common people, as the fear of diabolism, witchcraft and an enemy within spread throughout society, and the political climate stabilised.

In the period between 1375 and 1435 two major changes occurred, these being a steady increase in the number of trials, and an intensification of the fear of witchcraft and an enemy within. This was as a result of firstly the spread of the Black Death throughout Europe, which aggravated existing social tensions and intensified the fear many felt that either God was angered or that they were under diabolic attack. Secondly the theological ideas of witchcraft and diabolism were becoming more concrete and definite. [3]

During the fourth period identified by Kieckhefer (1435 to 1500), the frequency of trials soared as demonological works, like the Malleus Maleficarum (first published in 1486) established stereotypical image of the witch and her activities such as the witches Sabbath, as discussed in my previous articles on Demonology (in issue 1 of this magazine), and Sabbats (in issue 2).

Norman Cohn goes into further detail than Kieckhefer does in his article about the formation of the stereotype. [4] He points out that the stereotype is an amalgam of medieval ideas that were brought together by early modern demonologists like Kramer and Sprenger (authors of the Malleus Maleficarum). These ideas being firstly the 'demonic pact', made by the witch with a demon or the devil himself to obtain magical power. Secondly the idea of maleficium (harmful magic) that was not prosecuted until it was connected to the 'demonic pact' and devil worship by demonologists. Thirdly demonologists made a connection between witchcraft, sexual perversion and cannibalism, to incur further public outrage against alleged 'witches', this method of incurring public hatred had also been used against medieval heretics like the Cathars, the Waldensians and the Templars. The fourth element of the stereotype is the idea of night flying and nocturnal meetings, folk stories of night flying are to be found throughout Europe, these nocturnal activities formed the basis of the stereotype of the witches Sabbath constructed by demonologists and Inquisitors. [5]

To conclude I hope that I have sufficiently explained the prominent historical theory/theories of the origins of the Witch Hunts. They were not, as it is commonly believed, an attempt by the church to stamp out paganism, but an attempt by politically active people to destroy their enemies in an effective and blameless way.

Bibliography

D. Olderidge (ed), The Witchcraft Reader, (Routledge: London, 2002).

N. Cohn, Europe's Inner Demons, (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1973).

Footnotes

[1] To be found in D. Olderidge (ed.), The Witchcraft Reader, (Routledge: London, 2002), ch.1, pp. 25-35.

[2] Including Phillip IV, who initially accused the Knights Templar of heresy, and was also responsible for several witchcraft trials including that of Archbishop Guichard of Troyes.

[3] The stereotype of the witch began to form in this period.

[4] In his 'The Demonization of Medieval Heretics' in D. Olderidge (ed), The Witchcraft Reader, (Routledge: London, 2002), ch.1, pp. 36-52. And Europe's Inner Demons, (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1973).

[5] As I discussed in my previous article on the Sabbath.